What Is The Purpose Of Using Need-based Theories For Worker Motivation?

v.two Need-Based Theories of Motivation

Learning Objectives

1. Explain how employees are motivated according to Maslow's hierarchy of needs.
2. Explain how the ERG (existence, relatedness, growth) theory addresses the limitations of Maslow'southward hierarchy.
3. Describe the differences among factors contributing to employee motivation and how these differ from factors contributing to dissatisfaction.
4. Describe need for achievement, power, and affiliation, and place how these acquired needs affect work behavior.

The primeval studies of motivation involved an examination of individual needs. Specifically, early researchers thought that employees try hard and demonstrate goal-driven behavior in order to satisfy needs. For example, an employee who is always walking around the office talking to people may accept a need for companionship, and his beliefs may be a style of satisfying this need. At the time, researchers developed theories to empathise what people need. Four theories may exist placed nether this category: Maslow's hierarchy of needs, ERG theory, Herzberg's two-factor theory, and McClelland's acquired-needs theory.

Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs

Abraham Maslow is among the about prominent psychologists of the twentieth century. His hierarchy of needs is an image familiar to most business organisation students and managers. The theory is based on a simple premise: Man beings have needs that are hierarchically ranked (Maslow, 1943; Maslow, 1954). There are some needs that are bones to all human being beings, and in their absence zilch else matters. As nosotros satisfy these basic needs, we start looking to satisfy higher society needs. In other words, one time a lower level need is satisfied, it no longer serves as a motivator.

Figure v.3 Maslow'due south Hierarchy of Needs

The most basic of Maslow's needs are physiological needs. Physiological needs refer to the need for food, water, and other biological needs. These needs are basic considering when they are lacking, the search for them may overpower all other urges. Imagine being very hungry. At that point, all your behavior may be directed at finding nutrient. Once you lot swallow, though, the search for food ceases and the promise of food no longer serves as a motivator. Once physiological needs are satisfied, people tend to become concerned about safety needs. Are they gratis from the threat of danger, hurting, or an uncertain time to come? On the next level up, social needs refer to the need to bond with other homo beings, be loved, and form lasting attachments with others. In fact, attachments, or lack of them, are associated with our health and well-being (Baumeister & Leary, 1995). The satisfaction of social needs makes esteem needs more salient. Esteem need refers to the desire to be respected by one's peers, feel important, and exist appreciated. Finally, at the highest level of the bureaucracy, the need for self-actualization refers to "condign all you are capable of condign." This need manifests itself by the desire to acquire new skills, take on new challenges, and behave in a way that will lead to the attainment of ane'due south life goals.

Maslow was a clinical psychologist, and his theory was non originally designed for work settings. In fact, his theory was based on his observations of individuals in clinical settings; some of the individual components of the theory found niggling empirical support. One criticism relates to the order in which the needs are ranked. It is possible to imagine that individuals who get hungry and are in fear of their lives might retain potent bonds to others, suggesting a different lodge of needs. Moreover, researchers failed to back up the arguments that one time a demand is satisfied it no longer serves as a motivator and that only i demand is ascendant at a given time (Neher, 1991; Rauschenberger, Schmitt, & Hunter, 1980).

Despite the lack of strong research back up, Maslow's theory found obvious applications in business settings. Understanding what people need gives us clues to understanding them. The hierarchy is a systematic way of thinking almost the dissimilar needs employees may take at whatsoever given point and explains unlike reactions they may have to similar treatment. An employee who is trying to satisfy esteem needs may experience gratified when her supervisor praises an accomplishment. However, some other employee who is trying to satisfy social needs may resent being praised by upper management in front end of peers if the praise sets the individual apart from the rest of the group.

How tin an organization satisfy its employees' various needs? In the long run, physiological needs may be satisfied by the person's paycheck, but it is important to remember that pay may satisfy other needs such as safety and esteem besides. Providing generous benefits that include health insurance and company-sponsored retirement plans, likewise as offering a mensurate of job security, volition help satisfy condom needs. Social needs may exist satisfied by having a friendly environs and providing a workplace conducive to collaboration and communication with others. Visitor picnics and other social become-togethers may also be helpful if the majority of employees are motivated primarily by social needs (but may cause resentment if they are non and if they have to cede a Dominicus afternoon for a visitor picnic). Providing promotion opportunities at work, recognizing a person'south accomplishments verbally or through more formal advantage systems, and conferring job titles that communicate to the employee that i has accomplished high status within the organisation are among the ways of satisfying esteem needs. Finally, self-actualization needs may be satisfied by the provision of development and growth opportunities on or off the job, as well as by work that is interesting and challenging. By making the attempt to satisfy the different needs of each employee, organizations may ensure a highly motivated workforce.

ERG Theory

Figure 5.iv

ERG theory includes beingness, relatedness, and growth.

Source: Based on Alderfer, C. P. (1969). An empirical test of a new theory of human needs. Organizational Behavior and Human Functioning, iv, 142–175.

ERG theory, adult by Clayton Alderfer, is a modification of Maslow's hierarchy of needs (Alderfer, 1969). Instead of the five needs that are hierarchically organized, Alderfer proposed that basic human needs may exist grouped nether three categories, namely, being, relatedness, and growth. Being corresponds to Maslow'southward physiological and safety needs, relatedness corresponds to social needs, and growth refers to Maslow'due south esteem and self-actualization.

ERG theory'south principal contribution to the literature is its relaxation of Maslow'southward assumptions. For instance, ERG theory does non rank needs in any particular society and explicitly recognizes that more than one need may operate at a given fourth dimension. Moreover, the theory has a "frustration-regression" hypothesis suggesting that individuals who are frustrated in their attempts to satisfy ane need may regress to some other. For case, someone who is frustrated past the growth opportunities in his job and progress toward career goals may regress to relatedness need and start spending more fourth dimension socializing with coworkers. The implication of this theory is that nosotros need to recognize the multiple needs that may be driving individuals at a given betoken to sympathise their behavior and properly motivate them.

Ii-Factor Theory

Frederick Herzberg approached the question of motivation in a unlike fashion. Past asking individuals what satisfies them on the chore and what dissatisfies them, Herzberg came to the conclusion that aspects of the piece of work environment that satisfy employees are very unlike from aspects that dissatisfy them (Herzberg, Mausner, & Snyderman, 1959; Herzberg, 1965). Herzberg labeled factors causing dissatisfaction of workers equally "hygiene" factors considering these factors were part of the context in which the job was performed, as opposed to the job itself. Hygiene factors included company policies, supervision, working conditions, salary, safety, and security on the job. To illustrate, imagine that you are working in an unpleasant piece of work environment. Your part is likewise hot in the summer and too cold in the winter. You lot are beingness harassed and mistreated. You would certainly exist miserable in such a work environment. Withal, if these problems were solved (your function temperature is only correct and y'all are non harassed at all), would you be motivated? Almost probable, yous would take the situation for granted. In fact, many factors in our piece of work environment are things that we miss when they are absent simply accept for granted if they are present.

In contrast, motivators are factors that are intrinsic to the job, such equally achievement, recognition, interesting work, increased responsibilities, advocacy, and growth opportunities. According to Herzberg's inquiry, motivators are the weather condition that truly encourage employees to endeavour harder.

Effigy 5.five

Hygiene Factors Company policy Supervision and relationships Working conditions Salary Security

Motivators Achievement Recognition Interesting work Increased responsibleness Advancement and growth

The two-factor theory of motivation includes hygiene factors and motivators.

Sources: Based on Herzberg, F., Mausner, B., & Snyderman, B. (1959). The motivation to piece of work. New York: John Wiley and Sons; Herzberg, F. (1965). The motivation to piece of work among Finnish supervisors. Personnel Psychology, 18, 393–402.

Herzberg'due south research is far from existence universally accustomed (Cummings & Elsalmi, 1968; House & Wigdor, 1967). I criticism relates to the primary inquiry methodology employed when arriving at hygiene versus motivators. When people are asked why they are satisfied, they may attribute the causes of satisfaction to themselves, whereas when explaining what dissatisfies them, they may blame the situation. The classification of the factors as hygiene or motivator is not that uncomplicated either. For example, the theory views pay as a hygiene gene. However, pay may have symbolic value by showing employees that they are being recognized for their contributions as well every bit communicating that they are advancing within the company. Similarly, the quality of supervision or the types of relationships employees class with their supervisors may determine whether they are assigned interesting work, whether they are recognized for their potential, and whether they take on more responsibilities.

Despite its limitations, the theory can be a valuable aid to managers because it points out that improving the environment in which the job is performed goes only and so far in motivating employees. Undoubtedly, contextual factors matter considering their absence causes dissatisfaction. However, solely focusing on hygiene factors will non exist plenty, and managers should also enrich jobs by giving employees opportunities for challenging work, greater responsibilities, advancement opportunities, and a job in which their subordinates can experience successful.

Acquired-Needs Theory

Among the demand-based approaches to motivation, David McClelland'south acquired-needs theory is the one that has received the greatest corporeality of back up. According to this theory, individuals acquire three types of needs every bit a upshot of their life experiences. These needs are the need for achievement, the demand for affiliation, and the need for ability. All individuals possess a combination of these needs, and the ascendant needs are thought to drive employee behavior.

McClelland used a unique method chosen the Thematic Apperception Exam (TAT) to assess the dominant need (Spangler, 1992). This method entails presenting research subjects an ambiguous pic asking them to write a story based on it. Take a look at the following picture. Who is this person? What is she doing? Why is she doing it? The story you tell well-nigh the woman in the picture would then be analyzed past trained experts. The idea is that the stories the photo evokes would reflect how the listen works and what motivates the person.

Figure 5.6

The type of story you lot tell by looking at this moving picture may give away the dominant demand that motivates you.

If the story yous come up with contains themes of success, meeting deadlines, or coming upward with brilliant ideas, you may be high in need for accomplishment. Those who have high need for achievement accept a strong need to be successful. As children, they may be praised for their hard work, which forms the foundations of their persistence (Mueller & Dweck, 1998). As adults, they are preoccupied with doing things better than they did in the past. These individuals are constantly striving to improve their functioning. They relentlessly focus on goals, peculiarly stretch goals that are challenging in nature (Campbell, 1982). They are especially suited to positions such as sales, where there are explicit goals, feedback is immediately available, and their endeavour frequently leads to success. In fact, they are more than attracted to organizations that are merit-based and reward performance rather than seniority. They as well do particularly well as entrepreneurs, scientists, and engineers (Harrell & Stahl, 1981; Trevis & Certo, 2005; Turban & Keon, 1993).

Are individuals who are high in need for achievement effective managers? Because of their success in lower level jobs where their private contributions affair the virtually, those with high need for accomplishment are frequently promoted to higher level positions (McClelland & Boyatzis, 1982). However, a high need for achievement has significant disadvantages in management positions. Management involves getting piece of work done by motivating others. When a salesperson is promoted to be a sales manager, the task description changes from actively selling to recruiting, motivating, and training salespeople. Those who are high in need for achievement may view managerial activities such as coaching, communicating, and meeting with subordinates as a waste of time and may fail these aspects of their jobs. Moreover, those high in demand for achievement enjoy doing things themselves and may find it difficult to delegate any meaningful dominance to their subordinates. These individuals often micromanage, expecting others to approach tasks a particular mode, and may go overbearing bosses past expecting anybody to brandish high levels of dedication (McClelland & Burnham, 1976).

If the story yous created in relation to the picture you are analyzing contains elements of making plans to exist with friends or family unit, you may have a loftier demand for amalgamation. Individuals who have a high need for amalgamation desire to be liked and accepted by others. When given a choice, they prefer to interact with others and be with friends (Wong & Csikszentmihalyi, 1991). Their accent on harmonious interpersonal relationships may be an advantage in jobs and occupations requiring frequent interpersonal interaction, such every bit a social worker or teacher. In managerial positions, a loftier need for affiliation may again serve every bit a disadvantage considering these individuals tend to be overly concerned near how they are perceived by others. They may find it difficult to perform some aspects of a manager's chore such as giving employees critical feedback or disciplining poor performers. Thus, the work environment may be characterized by mediocrity and may even pb to loftier performers leaving the squad.

Finally, if your story contains elements of getting piece of work done by influencing other people or desiring to brand an impact on the organization, you may have a high need for power. Those with a high need for power desire to influence others and control their surround. A need for power may in fact be a destructive element in relationships with colleagues if information technology takes the grade of seeking and using power for one's own good and prestige. However, when it manifests itself in more altruistic forms such as changing the way things are done so that the work environment is more positive, or negotiating more resource for one'due south department, information technology tends to atomic number 82 to positive outcomes. In fact, the need for ability is viewed every bit an of import trait for effectiveness in managerial and leadership positions (McClelland & Burnham, 1976; Spangler & House, 1991; Spreier, 2006).

McClelland's theory of acquired needs has important implications for the motivation of employees. Managers need to understand the dominant needs of their employees to exist able to motivate them. While people who accept a high need for achievement may respond to goals, those with a high need for ability may endeavor to proceeds influence over those they work with, and individuals high in their need for affiliation may be motivated to proceeds the approval of their peers and supervisors. Finally, those who take a high drive for success may experience difficulties in managerial positions, and making them aware of common pitfalls may increase their effectiveness.

Key Takeaway

Demand-based theories describe motivated behavior equally individuals' efforts to meet their needs. According to this perspective, the manager's job is to identify what people need and make the work surroundings a means of satisfying these needs. Maslow'southward hierarchy describes five categories of bones homo needs, including physiological, safety, social, esteem, and self-appearing needs. These needs are hierarchically ranked, and as a lower level need is satisfied, information technology no longer serves as a motivator. ERG theory is a modification of Maslow's hierarchy, in which the 5 needs are collapsed into three categories (existence, relatedness, and growth). The theory recognizes that when employees are frustrated while attempting to satisfy higher level needs, they may regress. The two-factor theory differentiates betwixt factors that make people dissatisfied on the job (hygiene factors) and factors that truly motivate employees (motivators). Finally, acquired-needs theory argues that individuals possess stable and dominant motives to achieve, acquire power, or affiliate with others. The blazon of need that is ascendant volition drive behavior. Each of these theories explains characteristics of a work surroundings that motivates employees. These theories paved the way to process-based theories that explicate the mental calculations employees make to decide how to comport.

Exercises

1. Many managers assume that if an employee is not performing well, the reason must be a lack of motivation. Practice yous think this reasoning is accurate? What is the problem with the supposition?
2. Review Maslow's hierarchy of needs. Practice y'all hold with the particular ranking of employee needs?
3. How can an organization satisfy employee needs that are included in Maslow'due south bureaucracy?
4. Which motivation theory have you establish to be most useful in explaining why people deport in a certain way? Why?
5. Review the hygiene and motivators in the 2-cistron theory of motivation. Do yous agree with the stardom between hygiene factors and motivators? Are there any hygiene factors that y'all would consider to be motivators?
6. A friend of yours demonstrates the traits of achievement motivation: This person is competitive, requires frequent and immediate feedback, and enjoys accomplishing things and doing things improve than she did earlier. She has recently been promoted to a managerial position and seeks your advice. What would yous tell her?

References

Alderfer, C. P. (1969). An empirical test of a new theory of human being needs. Organizational Behavior and Human Operation, four, 142–175.

Baumeister, R. F., & Leary, One thousand. R. (1995). The demand to belong: Desire for interpersonal attachments as a fundamental human being motivation. Psychological Message, 117, 497–529.

Campbell, D. J. (1982). Determinants of choice of goal difficulty level: A review of situational and personality influences. Journal of Occupational Psychology, 55, 79–95.

Cummings, Fifty. L., & Elsalmi, A. M. (1968). Empirical research on the bases and correlates of managerial motivation. Psychological Message, 70, 127–144.

Harrell, A. M., & Stahl, M. J. (1981). A behavioral decision theory approach for measuring McClelland's trichotomy of needs. Periodical of Applied Psychology, 66, 242–247.

Herzberg, F. (1965). The motivation to work among Finnish supervisors. Personnel Psychology, eighteen, 393–402.

Herzberg, F., Mausner, B., & Snyderman, B. (1959). The motivation to work. New York: John Wiley.

Business firm, R. J., & Wigdor, L. A. (1967). Herzberg's dual-gene theory of job satisfaction and motivation: A review of the testify and a criticism. Personnel Psychology, 20, 369–389.

Maslow, A. H. (1943). A theory of human motivation. Psychological Review, fifty, 370–396.

Maslow, A. H. (1954). Motivation and personality. New York: Harper.

McClelland, D. C., & Boyatzis, R. E. (1982). Leadership motive design and long-term success in management. Journal of Applied Psychology, 67, 737–743.

McClelland, D. C., & Burnham, D. H. (1976). Ability is the great motivator. Harvard Concern Review, 25, 159–166.

Mueller, C. M., & Dweck, C. S. (1998). Praise for intelligence can undermine children's motivation and performance. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 75, 33–52.

Neher, A. (1991). Maslow's theory of motivation: A critique. Journal of Humanistic Psychology, 31, 89–112.

Rauschenberger, J., Schmitt, Northward., & Hunter, J. Eastward. (1980). A examination of the need hierarchy concept past a Markov model of change in demand force. Administrative Scientific discipline Quarterly, 25, 654–670.

Spangler, West. D. (1992). Validity of questionnaire and TAT measures of need for accomplishment: 2 meta-analyses. Psychological Bulletin, 112, 140–154.

Spangler, W. D., & House, R. J. (1991). Presidential effectiveness and the leadership motive contour. Periodical of Personality and Social Psychology, sixty, 439–455.

Spreier, Due south. West. (2006). Leadership run amok. Harvard Business organization Review, 84, 72–82.

Trevis, C. S., & Certo, S. C. (2005). Spotlight on entrepreneurship. Business Horizons, 48, 271–274.

Turban, D. B., & Keon, T. 50. (1993). Organizational attractiveness: An interactionist perspective. Periodical of Practical Psychology, 78, 184–193.

Wong, M. Thou., & Csikszentmihalyi, 1000. (1991). Affiliation motivation and daily experience: Some issues on gender differences. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, lx, 154–164.

What Is The Purpose Of Using Need-based Theories For Worker Motivation?,

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